Dynasties: Middle Kingdom|Dynasties: Middle Kingdom~~MIDDLE KINGDOM 2040-1640 BC~~11th Dynasty 2040-1991 BC~ Nephepetre'~ Mentuhotpe 2061-2010 BC~ S'ankhkare'~ Mentuhotpe 2010-1998 BC~ Nebtawyre'~ Mentuhotpe 1998-1991 BC~~12th Dynasty 1991-1783 BC~ Amenemhet I 1991-1962 BC~ Senwosret I 1971-1926 BC~ Amenemhet II 1929-1892 BC~ Senwosret II 1897-1878 BC~ Senwosret III 1878-1841? BC~ Amenemhet III 1844-1797 BC~ Amenemhet IV 1799-1787 BC~ Nefrusobk 1787-1783 BC~~13th Dynasty 1783-c.1640 BC~ (Only the better-known kings of this period are listed)~ Wegaf 1783-1779 BC~ Amenemhet V~ Harnedjheriotef ~ Amenyqemau~ Sebekhotpe I c.1750 BC~ Hor ~ Amenemhet VII~ Sebekhotpe II~ Khendjer~ Sebekhotpe III c.1745 BC~ Neferhotep I c.1741-1730 BC~ Sebekhotpe IV c.1730-1720 BC~ Sebekhotpe V c.1720-1715 BC~ Aya c.1704-1690 BC~ Mentuemzaf~ Dedumose II~ Neferhotep III~~14th Dynasty ~ (Several minor kings ruled during this period, and were for the most part contemporary with the 13th and 15th Dynasties. )~~2nd INTERMEDIATE PERIOD c.1640-1532 BC~~15th Dynasty (Hyksos) c.1640-1532 BC~ Alitis ~ Sheshi ~ Khian ~ Apophis c.1585-1542 BC~ Khamudi c.1542-1532 BC~~16th Dynasty~ Minor Hyksos rulers who were contemporary with the 15th Dynasty~~17th Dynasty c.1640-1550 BC~ (Theban contemporaries of the 15th Dynasty)~ Inyotef V c.1640-1635 BC~ Sebekemzaf I ~ Nebireyeraw~ Sebekamzaf II~ Ta'o/Djehuti'o I~ Ta'o/Djehuti'o II~ Kamose c.1555-1550 BC|Kings & Pharoahs|4|||1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||H|AW0004.PIC
Dynasties: New Kingdom|Dynasties: New Kingdom~~NEW KINGDOM 1550-1070 BC~~18th Dynasty 1550-1307 BC~ ‘Ahmose 1550-1525 BC~ Amenophis I 1525-1504 BC~ Tuthmosis I 1504-1492 BC~ Tuthmosis II 1492-1479 BC~ Tuthmosis III 1492-1479 BC~ Hatshepsut 1473-1458 BC~ Amenophis II 1427-1401 BC~ Tuthmosis IV 1401-1391 BC~ Amenophis III 1391-1353 BC~ Amenophis IV/Akhenaton 1353-1335 BC~ Smenkhkare' ~ Nefertiti ? 1335-1333 BC~ Tut'ankhamun 1333-1323 BC~ Aya 1323-1319 BC~ Haremhab 1319-1307 BC~~19th Dynasty 1307-1196 BC~ Ramesses I 1307-1306 BC~ Sethos I 1306-1290 BC~ Ramesses II 1290-1224 BC~ Merneptah 1224-1214 BC~ Sethos II 1214-1204 BC~ Amenmesse (usurper of Sethos II)~ Siptah 1204-1198 BC~ Twosre 1198-1196 BC~~20th Dynasty 1196-1070 BC~ Sethnakhte 1196-1194 BC~ Ramesses III 1194-1163 BC~ Ramesses IV 1163-1156 BC~ Ramesses V 1156-1151 BC~ Ramesses VI 1151-1143 BC~ Ramesses VII 1143-1136 BC~ Ramesses VIII 1136-1131 BC~ Ramesses IX 1131-1112 BC~ Ramesses X 1112-1100 BC~ Ramesses XI 1100-1070 BC~~21st Dynasty 1070-945 BC~ Smendes 1070-1044 BC~ Amenemnisu 1044-1040 BC~ Amenemope 1040-992 BC~ Osorkon I 984-978 BC~ Siamun 978-959 BC~ Psusennes II 959-945 BC~~22nd Dynasty 945-712 BC~ Shoshenq I 945-923 BC~ Osorkon II 924-909 BC~ Takelot I 909- BC~ Shosenq II -883 BC~ Osorkon III 883-855 BC~ Takelot II 860-835 BC~ Shoshenq III 835-783 BC~ Pami 783-773 BC~ Shoshenq V 773-735 BC~ Osorkon V 735-712 BC~~23rd Dynasty c.828-712 BC~Various kings~ Pedubaste I 828-803 BC~ Osorkon IV 777-749 BC~ Peftjau 'awybast 740-725 BC~~24th Dynasty 724-712 BC~ Tefnakhte 724-717 BC~ Bocchoris 717-712 BC~~25th Dynasty 770-712 BC~(Nubia and Thebes)~Kashta 770-750 BC~Piye 750-712 BC~~LATE PERIOD 712-332 BC~~25th Dynasty 712-657 BC~(Nubia and Egypt)~ Shabaka 712-657 BC~ Shebitku 698-690 BC~ Taqarqa 690-664 BC~ Tantamani 664-657 BC~~26th Dynasty 664-525 BC~ Necho I 672-664 BC~ Psammetcihus I 664-610 BC~ Necho II 610-595 BC~ Psammetichus II 595-589 BC~ Apries 589-570 BC~ Amasis 570-526 BC~ Psammetichus III 526-525 BC~~27th Dynasty 525-404 BC~(Persian)~Cambyses 525-522 BC~Darius I 521-486 BC~Xerxes I 486-466 BC~Artaxerxes I 465-424 BC~Darius II 424-404 BC~~28th Dynasty 404-399 BC~ Amyrtaios 404-399 BC~~29th Dynasty 399-380 BC~ Nepherites I 399-393 BC~ Psammuthis 393 BC~ Hakoris 393-380 BC~ Nepherites II 380 BC~~30th Dynasty 380-343 BC~Nectanebo I 380-362 BC~Teos 365-360 BC~Nectanebo II 360-343 BC ~~2nd Persian Period 343-332 BC~Artaxerxes III Ochus 343-338 BC~Arses 338-336 BC~Darius III Codoman 335-332 BC~ - interupted by a native ruler 'Khababash' ~~GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD 332 BC-395 CE~ Macedonian Dynasty 332-304 BC~ Alexander III the Great 332-323 BC~ Philip Arrhidaeus 323-316 BC~ Alexander IV 316-304 BC~Ptolemaic Dynasty 304-330 BC~Ptolemy I Soter I 304-284 BC~Ptolemy II 285-246 BC~Ptolemy III Euergetes I 246-221 BC~Ptolemy IV Phillopator 221-205 BC~Ptolemy V Epiphanes 205-180 BC~Ptolemy VI 180-164, 163-145 BC~Ptolemy VIII 170-163, 145-116 BC~Ptolemy VII Neos 145 BC~Cleopatra III Q and Ptolemy IX Soter II 116-107 BC~Cleopatra III Q andPtolemy X Alexander I 107-88 BC~Ptolemy IX SoterII 88-81 BC~Cleopatra Berenice Q 81-80 BC~Ptolemy XI Alexander II 80 BC~Ptolemy XII Neos 80-58, 55-51 BC~Berenice IV Q 58-55 BC~Cleopatra VII Q 51-30 BC~Ptolemy XIII 51-47 BC~Ptolemy XIV 47-44 BC~Ptolemy XV Caesarion 44-30 BC~~Roman Emperors 30 BC-395 AD CE~Augustus 30 BC-14 CE~Tiberius 14-37 CE~Gaius (Caligula) 37-41 CE~Claudius 41-54 CE~Nero 54-68 CE~Galba 68-69 CE~Otho 69 CE~Vespasian 69-79 CE~ CETitus 79-81 CE~Domitian 81-96 CE~Nerva 96-98 CE~Trajan 98-117 CE~Hadrian 117-138 CE~Antoninus Pius 138-161 CE~Marcus Aurelius 161-180 CE~Lucius Versus 161-169 CE~Commodus 180-192 CE~Septimius Severus 193-211 CE~Caracalla 198-217 CE~Geta 209-212 CE~Macrinus 217-218 CE~Diadumenianus 218 CE~Severus Alexander 222- 235 CE~Gordian III 238-244 CE~Philip 244-249 CE~Decius 249-251 CE~Gallus and Volusianus 251-253 CE~Valerian 253-260 CE~Gallienus 253-268 CE~Macrianus and Quietus 260-261 CE~Aurelian 270-275 CE~Probus 276-282 CE~Diocletian 284-305 CE~Maximian 286-305 CE~Galerius 293-311 CE|Kings & Pharoahs|5|||1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||H|AW0005.PIC
Introduction|Introduction~~Although Egypt evolved several scripts over its long history, its oldest and longest lived was the hieroglyphic system. Hieroglyphs are an ornate system of picture writing, that originated around 3000 BC, and passed from common usage around the year 400 of the common era. Our modern term hieroglyph originates from the Greek term ta hieroglyphica--the sacred letters. Because hieroglyphic characters are in the form of pictures, early Egyptologists assumed that they were a primitive form of symbolic picture writing. Quite to the contrary, when the hieroglyphic script was finally translated in the early 1800's, it proved to be a highly advanced and sophisticated form of writing, comprised of three major divisions: logograms (pictorial signs), phonograms (a phonetic alphabet), and determinatives (classification signs). ~~When hieroglyphs are compared to other languages of the world, they may seem cumbersome and awkward; yet despite the system's inherent complexity its pictorial nature made certain ideas easier to comprehend, and raised the whole language to an intuitive and symbolic level.|Hieroglyphs|6|||1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||V|AW0006.PIC
Hieroglyphs in StarGate (con't.)|Hieroglyphs in StarGate (con't.)~~The inner circle of the coverstone contains the secret formula for travelling from Earth to the planet Abydos. On the two sides of the inner-most circle are composite depictions of the divine couple and siblings - the goddess Nut and the god Geb with the symbol of Ra above them. In Egyptian mythology Geb was the earth god and Nut was the goddess of the sky. Nut's body was generally full of stars representing the night-sky, and in this case she probably represented the entire expanse of universe which separated the Earth (Geb) from Ra's planet (represented by the winged solar disk supported on her back). This symbolic message in the form of divine personalities surrounded the central oval, or cartouche in the middle of the coverstone; and this cartouche conveyed a clear and direct message to any who understood the workings of the StarGate.~~The cartouche itself contains seven essential symbols which are all involved in the StarGate's function as an inter-dimensional space portal. The inner most of the two cartouches contains only six symbols and each of these represents a particular astronomical constellation. Again as Daniel Jackson explains in the movie, six points are necessary in order to triangulate a three-dimensional destination - in this case the destination is the planet Abydos and the six points are constellations. The patterns for these constellations were derived for the most part from actual star positions though these particular symbols were created especially for the movie. The particular constellations in this cartouche are - from top to bottom: Taurus, Serpens Caput, Capricorn, Monoceros, Sagitarius, and Orion. The single symbol in the outer of the two cartouches Daniel Jackson determined was representative of the Earth (as a pyramid with the sun on top) and was necessary in the triangulation process as the point of origin. Thus the cartouche in its totallity gave the code for traveling from the Earth to Abydos as triangulated by six constellations.|Hieroglyphs|7|||1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||H|AW0007.PIC
Introduction|Introduction~~On the Giza plateau, ten miles west of the modern Egyptian capital of Cairo, stand three gigantic stone pyramids. The largest of these is known as the Great Pyramid of Giza, and is the greatest--as well as the only remaining--of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It rises in 201 levels to the height of a modern forty-story building, and its base would cover 7 midtown blocks if placed in New York city. As an engineering accomplishment it was not to be rivaled until the creation of Boulder Dam.|Pyramids|8|||1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||H|AW0008.PIC
How: The Orthodox Theory|How: The Orthodox Theory~~The orthodox Egyptological community has maintained roughly the same theory of Pyramid construction over the years: the pyramids were built with hard hewn rocks cut with rudimentary copper and stone tools, and raised into position with simple leverage systems and massive amounts of labor. Their views are based on evidence from later construction projects--the Egyptologists who advance these views must admit that no records have been found describing the methods of construction used when the Great Pyramids were actually built. While the essential theory of pyramid construction has not changed, however, the details have undergone much refinement. ~ ~For instance, it used to be believed that the Great Pyramid was made level by a grid of water-filled channels at ground level, from which waterlines were marked all around the area for the base of the pyramid. But a more recent discovery that the pyramids of Khufu and Khafre have huge cores of bedrock in their centers from 21 to 30 feet high, proves such a leveling system to have been impossible. It is now believed that the pyramids were leveled by using equal length stakes, from which a string line was stretched and used as a horizontal point of reference; in fact, a series of regularly spaced holes which could have held such stakes has been found around the perimeter of the Great Pyramid.~ ~Another area of inquiry that has changed concerns the source of workers and of building supplies. It was originally thought that the workers were slaves, while now it is believed that the work was done by peasants, who were drafted on a rotating basis to serve for a few months each year. They labored as a service to their god-king and were paid with food, housing and clothes. The stone was believed to have been brought from quarries across and higher up on the Nile river, but more recent evidence is showing that many of the stones were probably mined locally, particularly to the south of the Great Pyramid. When the pyramids were first explored there was no evidence of any local quarries, but apparently they had been covered up by debris and years of desert sand flows.~~The particular area of pyramid construction theory that has evoked the most debate within the orthodox community is the problem of how the stone blocks were raised to a height of 450 feet, considering they weighed an average of two and a half tons. It is generally agreed that the blocks were dragged across nearly level lands to the base of the Pyramid by means of some kind of slightly inclined causeway or ramp. Several workers could have pulled a stone perhaps to the pyramid's base, possibly using wooden rollers, and oil or water to reduce friction; the disagreement lays in how this system was continued up the steep heights of the pyramid. The old-school Egyptologists thought that a gigantic ramp stretched from the ground to the high point of the unfinished Pyramid, and was gradually raised as the Pyramid grew in size. More modern scholars have dismissed this notion; such a ramp would have been nearly a mile long, and used nearly four times the amount of stone as the Great Pyramid itself. Furthermore, it would have become more and more narrow as it neared the top, becoming nearly inaccessible beyond a certain point. Other theorists thought that some kind of wooden leverage device was used to lift the stones from level to level, but no such practical method has been demonstrated, and there is no existing evidence of the proposed devices. The current theory is that the blocks were raised on a wrap-around system of ramps built into the structure itself and rising with it. Though this theory is very widely supported, some of its supporters still look upon it as tentative.|Pyramids|9|||1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,45,46,9,47||H|AW0009.PIC
Other Theories: Concrete|Other Theories: Concrete~~THE GREAT PYRAMID WAS BUILT FROM CONCRETE~~This theory suggests that the three large pyramids of Giza must have been built with a concrete-like material, because such a method would have done away with the need for so much work in quarrying and moving massive stone blocks. The author of this theory, Joseph Davidovits, calculates that the Great Pyramid could not have been completed within the twenty-year reign of Khufu if methods theorized by the traditional construction theory had actually been used. Besides making the construction of the Great Pyramid chronologically possible, the use of a quality concrete allowed for harder materials to be used than would have been possible using the primitive tools available to the builders during the third millennium BC. The transport of materials would also have been much more efficient and practical. ~~While the traditional theory maintains that the massive blocks from which the Great Pyramid was constructed were quarried out of hard limestone formations, Davidovits' theory suggests that the disaggregate limestone around the Pyramid could have been ground up relatively easily after having being softened with a bit of water. When all of the ingredients to strengthen the basic limestone had been gathered, the canals from the Nile to the pyramids (that many Egyptologists believe existed) would have served as giant mixing troughs. From there the unformed concrete could easily be carried in small amounts up the embankments of the unfinished pyramid and casted at whatever height desired. Using this method, the Great Pyramid could have been built efficiently and with a high level of precision, while requiring a much smaller labor force, and avoiding most of the accidents inherent in building with massive hewn stones. ~~The question remaining is whether the Ancient Egyptians really knew about the use of concretes. Davidovits claims they did, and offers several pieces of evidence as proof. He cites scientific studies performed on enameled statuettes dating from a few centuries before the first pyramids were built, which proved that the statues were composed of a concrete substance. Therefore, if intricate small statues could be built by chemical/concrete means several years before the construction of the Pyramids, it should have been easy by that time to create the large and simple stone blocks needed in their construction. ~~Although there have been other proofs of early Egyptian concrete use, the next important support for this theory comes in the form of actual molding tools found in the Sixth Dynasty pyramid of King Pepi II: a basket and a trough to transport and mix ingredients, a ladder, a square, a plumb line, a level, a trowel, and wooden molds to carry out the rest of the construction. While it is not known if this particular set of equipment was used for making mud or stone bricks, the same types of tools would have served perfectly well in building bricks for the Great Pyramids. ~~The story of the tools used in the Pyramid's construction as related by Herodotus adds further support to this theory. The early Greek historian recorded that the builders used a machine constructed of short wooden planks to place the stones on each successive level, and this statement prompted many pyramid construction theorists to create designs for various wooden leverage machines. But none of these machine designs fit with historical evidence, and none of them were built from short wooden planks as Herodotus described. Coincidentally, the Greek word for "machine" could be translated equally well as "mold." If this slight change was made in translation, Herodotus' report would make perfect sense.~~Another source of support for the concrete theory comes from various experiments performed on the composition of the pyramid blocks. These experiments have shown that fossils found in the blocks were generally in small fragments and in jumbled order. This data is significant because fossils generally are preserved in their whole forms, and become imbedded in symmetrical patterns; the fossils found in the Pyramid blocks totally contradict these patterns, and in some ways suggest that they had probably been shifted and mixed, as would have ingredients for a concrete material.~~Dr. Davidovits theory certainly is thought-provoking, and seems to explain many previously confusing aspects of Pyramid construction. Yet his theory is still relatively new to the field of Pyramid speculation, and will no doubt have to withstand many scholarly attacks before it truly can be said to be a "concrete" theory.|Pyramids|10|||newAwLinks||H|AW0010.PIC
Who built the Great Pyramid?|Who built the Great Pyramid?~~The question of who built the Great Pyramid of Giza is the least debated aspect of its mystery; it is almost universally conceded that the 3rd Century (BC) ruler Khufu is responsible for its construction. Although they are not extensive, the pieces of evidence associating Khufu's name to the Great Pyramid do make the connection very difficult to refute. As early as the Fifth Century BC, the Greek historian Herotodus was told by his Egyptian guides that Khufu had built the Pyramid during his twenty-year reign. There are other writings connecting Khufu to the Pyramid, but the most significant evidence is the painted cartouche bearing his name, which was discovered on the side of a block in a chamber high in the pyramid, that had proved inaccessible until blasted open with gun powder.~~In consideration of the known evidence, it would seem that any builder of the Great Pyramid besides Khufu at least must have had the same name. The challengers to this conclusion are generally alien theorists or occultists, and often lack familiarity with the existing evidence. Some of these alternative theories do warrant attention though, such as the Edgar Cayce society (ARE), who funded a large-scale carbon dating test on the pyramids conducted by the American Research Center in Egypt (ARCE). The ARE hoped to prove the claim by psychic Cayce that the Great Pyramid was 10,000 years old. Though the study disproved this contention, it did prove that the Pyramid was at least 380 years older than previously suspected.|Pyramids|11|||newAwLinks||H|AW0011.PIC
Why Was the Great Pyramid built?|Why Was the Great Pyramid built?~~By far the greatest speculation about the Great Pyramid deals with the question of its purpose. The theories range from the mundane--that it served only as a big burial mound--to the most extravagant--that it was built as a landing sight for aliens who met with the Egyptian high priests: their emissaries to mankind. While some of these theories may seem mutually exclusive, it is actually more likely that most of them are at least partially correct.|Pyramids|12|||newAwLinks||V|AW0012.PIC
